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Land utilisation

  LAND UTILIZATION  Land is a scarce resource, whose supply is fixed for all practical purposes. At the same time, the demand for land for various competing purposes is continuously increasing with the increase in human population and economic growth.Land use pattern at any given time is determined by several factors including size of human and livestock population, the demand pattern, the technology in use, the cultural traditions, the location and capability of land, institutional factors like ownership pattern and rights scale regulation. Major Types of Land Utilization in India : As in all other countries, land in India is put to various uses. The utilization of land depends upon physical factors like topography, soil and climate as well as upon human factors such as the density of population, duration of occupation of the area,land tenure and technical levels of the people.There are spatial and temporal difference in land utilization due to the continued interplay of phys...
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Public expenditure -Canons

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE -CANONS/PRINCIPLES
The general rules which are adopted by the government in formulating their public expenditure policies are termed as principles or Canons of public expenditure. 
a)Canon of benefit -Public expenditure should be planned in such a way as to yield maximum social advantage and social welfare to the community as a whole and should not be incurred on particular group of community. The government should incur it's public expenditure in a manner as to promote the greatest good .
b)Canon of economy -Economy does not mean miserliness it only means that wasteful and extravagant expenditure should be avoided at all levels. Economy can be in two spheres one in which state should spend money on necessary matters and second in which state should develop productive powers of the community .
c)Canon of sanction -Before incurring any expenditure , the concerned government department should obtain prior proper sanction from the competent authority . The object of this Canon again is is to avoid misappropriation of public money and to secure its proper use.
d)Canon of surplus-Public authorities should aim at surplus of income over their expenditure and that they should avoid deficits. It also implies that it may not be possible to achieve surplus budget year after year but what is really required is that the government should avoid continuous deficit budgeting in the interest of its own credit worthiness.
e)Canon of elasticity - The expenditure policy of state should be such that changes may be possible in accordance with the require of different circumstances. There should be a scope for changes in public expenditure according to requirement of the country.
f)Canon of productivity-The expenditure policy should be such as would encourage production in a country . In short , as per this Canon ,the major part of public expenditure should be allocated towards productive and developmental purposes.
g)Canon of equitable distribution -It implies that public expenditure should be carried out in such a way that Inequalities in the distribution of income are reduced I.e public expenditure should ensure just and equitable distribution of income among different groups of the community.
h)Canon of coordination-According to this , in case of countries having federal or democratic set up , there are central , state and local government. All these government have their separate budget and incur expenditure accordingly. There must be close coordination between them so that there is no duplication of expenditure.
I)Canon of certainty-Through proper budgeting and planning , the government should make it specifically clear how much amount will be spent in which area and during how much time period.

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