LAND UTILIZATION Land is a scarce resource, whose supply is fixed for all practical purposes. At the same time, the demand for land for various competing purposes is continuously increasing with the increase in human population and economic growth.Land use pattern at any given time is determined by several factors including size of human and livestock population, the demand pattern, the technology in use, the cultural traditions, the location and capability of land, institutional factors like ownership pattern and rights scale regulation. Major Types of Land Utilization in India : As in all other countries, land in India is put to various uses. The utilization of land depends upon physical factors like topography, soil and climate as well as upon human factors such as the density of population, duration of occupation of the area,land tenure and technical levels of the people.There are spatial and temporal difference in land utilization due to the continued interplay of phys...
TAX - PRINCIPLES
According to Adam Smith ,there are four Canons of maxims of taxation on admin side of public finance which are recognised as classic. A good tax according to him are those which contain
a)Canon of equality : The Canon of equality implies that burden of taxation must be distributed equally according to the ability of the tax payers.Equality of social justice demands that rich people should bear heavier burden of tax and poor a lesser burden.
b)Canon of certainty: Taxation must have element of certainty. According to Adam Smith ,the tax which each individual is bound to pay must to be certain and non arbitrary.T he time of payment , method of payment , amount to be paid should be clear to the contributor.
c)Canon of economy:According to him , Every tax had to be contrived as both to take out and keep out of pockets of people . Indian govt has to maintain an elaborate tax collection machinery with a large staff of highly trained personnel involving low administrative costs and should avoid delay in assessment and collection of tax.
d)Canon of convenience:Every tax ought to be levied at the time or in the manner in which it is most likely convenient for contributor to pay it. It is convenient to pay a tax when it is deducted at source from salaried classes at time of paying salaries .
Economists like Bastable have added few more Canons which are :
e)Canon of elasticity :Taxation should be elastic in nature in sense that more revenue is automatically fetched when income of the people rises. This means that taxation must have built in flexibility,so at the time of any emergency , more revenue can be easily generated.
f)Canon of productivity:This implies that a tax must yield sufficient revenue and not adversely affect production in the country,it should enhances productive capacity of nation.
g)Canon of simplicity:This implies that tax rates and tax systems ought to be simple and comprehensible and not to be complex and beyond the understanding of layman.
h)Canon of diversity:This implies that there should be multiple tax system of diverse nature rather than having a single tax system .In the former case ,the tax payer will not be burdened with high incidence of tax in aggregate.
I)Canon of expediency:This implies that a tax should be determined on the ground of its economic,social and political expediency. For example, a tax in agricultural income lacks social , political or administrative expediency in India and tgat is why the government of India had to discontinue it.
j)Canon of buoyancy:The taxation system should be such that the revenue collected increase or decrease automatically and fairly quickly with an increase of decrease in national income.
k) Canon of Neutrality :Canon of Neutrality implies that taxes should not interfere with otherwise efficiently functioning economic system. In other words , it should not the have inflationary or deflationary effects.
l)Canon of coordination :In modern times , central , state and local government levy taxes separately . There should be coordination in these taxes.
m)Canon of desirability :New taxes should be imposed only for some valid reasons so that their desirability cam be explained to the people.
n)Canon of popularity: Taxation system should be popular so that the government may not any opposition from the people.
o)Canon of administrative efficiency : From the point of view of administrative efficiency ,tax should be based on simple and clear definition. It should brace all types of beneficial receipts of people.
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